Ophthalmo-Psychiatric Disorders (OPD)

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Article initiated by:
Annika Agnihotri, Eric Lee, BS, Ethan.Lester, Clement Anozie Jr., MD, Safa Ibrahim, MD, Dina Abdelsalam, Andrew Go Lee, MD
All contributors:
Eric Lee, BS, Annika Agnihotri, Ethan.Lester, Clement Anozie Jr., MD, Dina Abdelsalam, Nagham Al-Zubidi, MD, Andrew Go Lee, MD, Safa Ibrahim, MD
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Review:
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Intersections Between Ophthalmology and Psychiatry

Biological Intersections

The fields of ophthalmology and psychiatry are connected in ways which have previously been well-characterized. The relationship between the two disciplines can best be described as bidirectional; ophthalmic disease processes can influence neurological signaling, and, conversely, psychiatric illness can influence visual perception, attentional bias, and ocular physiology.

For example, conditions like schizophrenia and bipolar disorder have been associated with impaired function in the primary visual cortex. Electroencephalography studies conducted on the way the brain processes stimuli have reported reduced amplitude of a component of the visual evoked potential in the aforementioned disorders [1].

Conversely, visual disorders can also cause significant psychiatric dysfunction. In one study conducted on patients with visual snow syndrome (VSS) there were demonstrated differences in functional brain networks related to the serotonin transporter (SERT) and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) molecular systems. These systems are involved in the sensory and limbic systems, and changes to them confirm functional connectivity alterations of VSS. Specifically, glutamatergic-enriched connectivity is reduced in VSS in an area of the brain that is involved in attention, salience processes, and executive awareness functions. NMDA-related activity associated with reduced connectivity in mid-cingulate cortex suggests downregulation of multi-sensory control mechanisms in these brain regions [2].

Stress may also act as a mediator between psychiatric issues and visual dysfunction. There is robust evidence linking the onset of major psychiatric conditions - including major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder - with significant emotional, physical, and financial burden [3]. In the long term, these compounding burdens can cause chronic stress. Over time, high levels of these hormones and continuous activation of the sympathetic nervous system could cause elevated eye pressure, which could cause damage to the optic nerve along with glaucoma [4].

Additionally, recent studies exploring patients with psychological disorders have found that “life stress” may be associated with lifestyle/health behavior, including poorer diet and intake of unhealthy foods like refined sugar and carbs. Indeed, it has long been thought that chronic stress may be associated with changes in eating behavior, namely overconsumption of sugars and carbs [5]. Studies have also found an association between excess sugar and carb consumption and ocular disease progression, including the progression of age-related macular degeneration and cataracts. Changes in behavior also link chronic stress to overeating and obesity, which has reliably been linked to the development of ocular diseases [6]. Indeed, high BMI is a common risk factor in the pathogenesis of diseases like age-related macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, cataracts, retinal vascular diseases, and idiopathic intracranial hypertension, among others. This sizable body of literature supports the mechanistic idea that increased weight, brought on partially by chronic stress, can have negative impacts on vision and ocular health[7]. Stress within the context of chronic conditions has also been closely tied to the co-occurrence of depression and anxiety[8]. Many studies have captured this association within the context of chronic ocular conditions, such as glaucoma and dry eye disease[9]. Some meta-analyses have even concluded that stress could be considered a significant consequence and cause of vision loss[10]. There are many ways that psychological conditions like depression, anxiety, stress, and PTSD may impact the prognosis and progression of ocular diseases, including through association with decreased medication adherence[11]. Some studies have even found that incidence of anxiety and depression in patients may impact perioperative treatment compliance within the context of ocular surgery[12]. Such converging, strong evidence reinforces the idea that psychological disorders and maladaptive emotions may together impact the prognosis and ultimate outcome of chronic ocular disease. With this, it becomes clear that behavior, emotion, and biology are interdependent and influence ophthalmic disease progression and outcomes.

Clinical Intersections

Within ophthalmology, there are certain disease processes that have been traditionally linked to higher depressive or anxiety levels. Glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) are two of such diseases. In a study, researchers saw that 35% of patients with glaucoma reported nervousness, anxiety, or stress[13]. AMD has been linked to a significant increase in depressive symptoms as compared to other visual disparities with studies of AMD finding that 32.5% of participants meeting major depressive disorder criteria[14]. More generally, it was found that patients with chronic, non-reversible diseases are at a significantly higher risk of developing psychopathology[15].

There is a long, interdependent relationship between ophthalmology and psychiatry and that visual impairment may even lead to a statistically significant increase in depressive disorders[15]. In fact, nearly 1 in 3 patients with visual impairments or disabling eye diseases experience depressive symptoms[13]. Within the community, these individuals are anywhere from 1.6 to 2.8 times more likely to develop depression, putting them at a higher risk due primarily to their visual illness[16]. One study found that the prevalence of depression increased from 6.8% to 10.7% when comparing adults with normal vision to those that were visually impaired[17].

These findings show that there is a strong, positive correlation between any visual impairment and symptoms of depression even before consideration of specific disease processes.

In addition to depressive symptoms, many studies note that anxiety, tension, depersonalization, isolation, social impact, and general distress are seen in those with visual impairment. Researchers have found that individuals with visual impairment had significantly greater risk for mood symptoms (depression, anxiety, stress), as well as severe social isolation[18]. This study and others provide valuable insight on how visual impairment can alter one’s mental wellbeing and social-emotional functioning in comparison to non-visually impaired individuals. These symptoms increased the risk of suicide within the visually impaired populations, with risk increasing with the severity of impairment and suicidal ideations being even more prevalent in the elderly with visual impairment[19]. A CDC study showed that 7 million had vision impairment in 2024[20]. This number is only set to grow as the population ages, and the total number of visually impaired individuals is set to increase[21].

Our review illustrates the impact ophthalmic diseases can have on one’s physical and mental health. This connection demonstrates a clear intersection that ophthalmology and psychiatry share clinically and for patient care impact. Many ophthalmic conditions contribute to the process of visual loss, like diabetic retinopathy which increased in prevalence from 2007-2021 according to a recent AAO study[22]. A closer look at conditions that lie squarely at the intersection of ophthalmology and psychiatry may further illustrate the importance of this shared clinical space.

Functional vision disorders (FVD), under the larger diagnostic criteria of functional neurological disorders; DSM 5 serve as an exemplar of this shared clinical space between ophthalmology and psychiatry. Management and consideration of these disease processes can help elucidate the practical connection between ophthalmic and psychiatric care . FVDs are those in which vision loss coexists with clinical findings that are incompatible with the typically recognized symptoms of either neurological or ophthalmic conditions[23]. Current explorations of FVD have posited that certain ophthalmic outcomes - i.e. visual field loss - may reflect the brain’s natural response to stress arising from underlying psychological dysfunction[24]. This highlights a natural organic dysfunction in pathways linking the brain to the eyes rather than a purely psychological etiology. In terms of clinical manifestations of FVD, current estimates indicate that about 39% of adults and 18% of children with FVD have concomitant psychiatric illness, while the proportion of cases in which FVD and true diagnosed ophthalmic disease coexist lies at around 17%[25]. This large overlap highlights a need for trained ophthalmologists to be knowledgeable about how psychological dysfunction may present in their clinics. Additionally, it warrants exploration of measures that should be taken in ophthalmology clinics to address both vision loss and underlying psychiatric comorbidities. Initial treatment of FVD disorders usually involves education delivered by the ophthalmologist, followed by more concrete psychiatric interventions such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT, an evidence-based psychotherapy)[26].

FVDs highlights a clear overlap between the fields of ophthalmology and psychiatry, revealing how the natural interconnection between the eyes and the brain may manifest in a variety of unique clinical presentations. Ophthalmologic subspecialities such as neuro-ophthalmology built upon this bidirectional relationship, which focuses on visual complications associated with neurological functioning. Furthermore, previous research within the field has made the case that visual function is inherently linked to psychogenic disease processes, especially when other organic etiologies are not present[27]. Specifically, experts theorize that five areas may be affected by psychogenic disease: visual acuity, ocular motility and alignment, pupillary size and reactivity, eyelid position and function, and corneal and facial sensation[28]. This inherent connection between ophthalmology, neurology, and psychiatry warrants further exploration of the psychological comorbidities that often arise from neuro-ophthalmic dysfunction.

Neuro-Ophthalmology and Psychiatry

Many neuro-ophthalmic conditions have been linked to potential psychiatric comorbidities including, but not limited to, depression and anxiety[29]. This phenomenon makes neuro-ophthalmology an especially valuable subspecialty to focus on when considering the overlap between ophthalmology and psychiatry.

One such disease is visual snow syndrome (VSS), a neurological disease characterized by a TV static-like phenomenon in one’s visual field, often leading to continuous symptoms and migraines[30]. A possible explanation for this association between visual snow and the psychological trait of absorption is visual cortex hyperexcitability. Hyperexcitability can intensify perceptual and imaginary experiences to the extent that they intensely absorb attention[31]. Because this disease is incurable, patients will live with this illness, making co-occurring symptoms of depression and anxiety extremely common[32].

Visual vertigo is an illusion of motion without co-occurring imbalance or physical motion, often due to abnormal vestibular stimulations. It is similar to VSS in that there are no direct cures for the phenomenon and that anxiety and depression are common comorbidities. These symptoms are further intensified due to the unpredictable and uncontrollable nature of the episodes[33]. A proposed mechanism for these psychological comorbidities is an increased level of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, neurotransmitters that are known to play a role in anxiety and depression. Repeated exposure to these vestibular stimulations may lead to accumulation of the aforementioned neurotransmitters and subsequent exacerbation of anxiety and depression[34].

Congenital optic nerve disorders are also known to present with psychological comorbidities. These disorders are structural malformations of the optic nerve head, and can cause significant visual impairment and blindness[35]. Examples of these disorders include optic disc coloboma, morning glory syndrome, optic nerve hypoplasia (ONH), and peripapillary staphyloma. The developmental origin of these diseases combined with the inability of the optic nerve to regenerate results in congenital optic nerve disorders that are not completely curable, with most treatments focusing on maximizing residual vision [36]. Similar to many of the diseases mentioned previously, patients live their whole lives with congenital optic nerve disorder while also dealing with the associated psychological comorbidities. Indeed, studies have shown that ONH is linked to an increased prevalence of mood and anxiety disorders (37). This association may be facilitated by hypopituitarism, or a reduced structural integrity of the ventral cingulum seen in ONH patients [37][38].

The aforementioned neuro-ophthalmic conditions are all incurable and lead to reduced vision. This overall reduction of vision has been linked to a higher incidence of depression and anxiety, as previously mentioned. There are many mechanisms for how impaired vision may result in these psychiatric findings, including difficulty adapting to new roles and a feeling of lost purpose [39]. Loss of vision profoundly changes a person’s life, impacting one’s quality of life, independence, and mobility, ultimately resulting in changes in cognition, social function, employment, and educational attainment [40]. These changes are one possible reason for the increased incidence of depression and anxiety [41]. Common treatments for neuro-ophthalmic disorders include supportive ocular therapies such as oculomotor, vestibular rehabilitation, or occlusion therapy in addition to visual aids like prescription tints, patching, or vestibular suppressants [42][43][44][45]. Notably, these treatments support the visual symptoms of the diseases; however, they fail to address the associated psychosocial issues. In fact, recent studies suggest that despite being at higher risk for psychosocial issues, patients with vision impairment, a significant impact of most neuro-ophthalmic diseases, are less likely to use and/or be referred to mental health programs [46]. Low vision resources are currently a solution that helps individuals adapt to vision impairment; however, this form of intervention fails to address the mental health comorbidities these patients often present with [47][48]. In this context, it is clear that there is a pressing need to bridge the gap between neuro-ophthalmic and mental health care by establishing stronger interdisciplinary collaborations.

Vision loss due to vision impairment is often accompanied by significant mood and outlook changes, emotional distress, and fear [49]. Cognitive-behavioral techniques such as self-management, self-help, problem solving, behavioral activation, and emotion-focused intervention have been shown to be effective in mitigating maladaptive behaviors and negative thought patterns [48]. However, psychosocial issues in relation to visual impairment are rarely discussed in the existing neuro-ophthalmology literature, and there has been limited work done on the characterization of mental health challenges associated with neuro-ophthalmic disease processes.

Additionally, there is a well-established, longstanding connection between neuro-ophthalmology and psychiatry. Neuro-ophthalmologists can aid psychiatrists by helping diagnose non-organic visual dysfunction by confirming the functional integrity of the eyes and a non-physiologic basis of visual complaints. However, neuro-ophthalmologists may also notice pathological changes related to psychiatric medications or find subtle changes within the central nervous system that may aid psychiatric treatment or course of care. Overall, this represents a two-fold benefit, as well as a natural fit for bridging the gap between neuro-ophthalmic and psychological care through the establishment of integrated care systems [50].

Management

Current Interventions

While ophthalmology can manage organic diseases very well - through prescription medications and biological process treatment - ophthalmologists are not prepared to assist with the emotional sequelae that accompanies vision loss. Conversely, psychiatrists and mental health clinicians (psychologists, social workers, counselors) are heavily trained in treating emotional sequelae and other associated mental disorders but are unable to address the underlying anatomy and biological processes of such illnesses. Specifically related to psychiatry, there are many psychiatric medications that often have ophthalmic side effects, and the converse is also true [51]. Thus, there is an intersection where ophthalmologists and mental health clinicians can support in improving care for a shared set of patients. However, current referral patterns are limited between both practices; it was found in one study that only 14% of patients with PHQ-9 and GAD-7 scores which indicated critical depression or anxiety status scores were referred to psychiatry by ophthalmologists [52].

When ophthalmologists do refer, vision rehabilitation is often a common modality of intervention. Vision rehabilitation programs are offered to low vision patients to help them adjust to changes in livelihood and adapt to their new “normal” [53]. However, these therapies usually focus on providing devices/aids - like magnifying devices and skill teaching - that serve to augment their remaining vision rather than address the psychological aspects of their care and the change in identity that comes with vision dysfunction [53][54]. There are some psychological therapies and multidisciplinary rehabilitation programs that exist, but there is often a weak referral system in place, limiting patient access to these resources [53]. In fact, a study of focus groups by the National Eye Institute found that many older adults with low vision were unaware or took no effort to utilize these rehabilitation or resource aid services, demonstrating additional shortcomings of the broader ophthalmology referral system [55].

Many experts have highlighted a need for the implementation of depression screenings as a routine part of low vision service due to the increased prevalence in this population; however, many rehabilitation professionals do not have the proper training or skills necessary to provide treatment beyond initial screening [56]. Additionally, patients often feel reluctant to discuss depression with these vision professionals, feeling as if they were utilizing time that could be better spent elsewhere [57].

The limitations of the current system are clear, and because of this, we present a novel integrated behavioral health system that leverages a streamlined referral system and in-hospital care by psychologists within the Mass Eye and Ear System (Boston Massachusetts, USA).

Embedded Behavioral Health Services in Ophthalmology

The Embedded Behavioral Health Service (EBHS) at Mass Eye and Ear reflects an important paradigm shift in ophthalmic care, reframing psychosocial support as a necessary and essential component of visual health rather than an adjunctive referral. Vision loss, whether acute, progressive, or chronic, can produce significant functional, emotional, and even existential consequences that directly influence patients’ engagement in care, treatment adherence, and their overall quality of life. Our EBHS addresses this reality by embedding behavioral health clinicians (specifically clinical psychologists and specialty referrals to an ophthalmic psychiatrist) within ophthalmology subspecialties, allowing psychological assessment and intervention to occur concurrently with medical care. This embedded model positions mental health support as a routine and expected aspect of vision care, reducing stigma while improving continuity and accessibility of services. Within this model of embedded care, clinicians can also consult with and liaison with the medical team, and even provide additional services to the department, including in-services on important aspects of whole-person care.

Current Utilization in Ophthalmology Subspecialties

Within our vision rehabilitation optometry clinic, the EBHS is delivered through a structured, team-based clinical pathway that aligns functional assessment (e.g., abilities, adaptations, and technology) with psychosocial support and facilitation (e.g., skill acquisition and uptake, behavioral planning and activation). For this service line, patients first establish care with a vision rehabilitation optometrist, where detailed histories of daily functioning, visual goals, current device use, and emotional adjustment are obtained alongside comprehensive low vision evaluations. This initial optometry visit not only addresses visual acuity, refraction, and assistive technologies, but also explicitly frames psychological adjustment as a core element of adapting to vision loss adjustment. Brief mental health screening tools and systematic communication via office staff between optometry and psychology help identify patients who may benefit from EBHS services. This model supports patients as they navigate both the practical demands of low vision, as well as the emotional processes of adjusting to vision impairment. Although not unique to vision rehabilitation work, mood challenges (e.g., anxiety, grief, frustration), motivation and ambivalence for change, and defining goals and values are all themes of this psychosocial support that accompany visual impairment.

EBHS has also been embedded within our ophthalmic trauma service. These trauma patients often experience sudden, life-altering injuries accompanied by acute psychological distress, as well as practical adjustments of vision loss. In this clinical setting, vision loss frequently occurs in the context of managing crisis and navigating uncertainty, placing patients at heightened risk for acute stress reactions and longer-term posttraumatic stress symptoms. Our clinical psychologists will provide early intervention focused on emotional stabilization, coping skill development, and support during periods of rapid medical decision-making and acute recovery. Continued integration across follow-up visits allows psychological care to evolve alongside medical recovery, supporting patients as they transition from crisis response to longer-term adaptation.

In our inherited retinal degeneration clinics, the EBHS addresses a psychosocial profile most often characterized by progressive vision loss, anticipatory grief, and uncertainty regarding future functioning and diverse identity sets. Our care in this clinic emphasizes psychoeducation, skill and resilience-building, values work and meaning-making. During this time, clinicians are also supporting patients in adapting to their evolving visual limitations and better integrating this into their sense of self. Collaboration between ophthalmologists and behavioral health clinicians allows psychosocial interventions to be closely aligned with disease trajectory and medical counseling and also provides for a cohesive service by which patients have reduced bias and stigma towards mental health services, and also where the clinician can have the most accurate and relevant information about the patient's specific disease.

Across vision rehabilitation, ophthalmic trauma, and inherited retinal degeneration, EBHS demonstrates that embedded behavioral health can be flexibly adapted to diverse ophthalmic contexts while addressing shared psychosocial themes of emotional distress and resiliency. In any of these clinical settings, the psychologist can consult our psychiatrist with additional training and expertise in treating co-occurring mental health and ophthalmic conditions. These visits often include chart review, medication consultation, and additional resource provision for patients with more acute psychiatric needs, as well. This embedded care reduces stigma and fragmentation while enhancing interdisciplinary collaboration and ultimately supporting patients at clinically meaningful moments such as diagnosis, crisis, and functional transition.

Although not currently part of our EBHS program, the subspecialty of neuro-ophthalmology represents a logical next step for this model of care. Neuro-ophthalmic conditions often convene at the intersection of ophthalmology, neurology, and psychiatry and involve chronic visual impairment, diagnostic uncertainty, and limited treatment options. This ultimately places these patients at elevated risk for psychological distress. Embedding behavioral health within neuro-ophthalmology offers a structured approach to addressing the neurologic and psychosocial dimensions of vision loss simultaneously.

Conclusions and Future Directions for EBHS in Ophthalmic Practices

This embedded model demonstrates psychosocial care can be integrated with subspecialty clinics without disrupting medical efficiency or standard practices. Embedded behavioral health allows mental health needs to be addressed at a singular point of care, overcoming barriers associated with traditional referral-based systems (e.g., waitlists, lack of specialty providers, siloed care). Our EBHS model demonstrates psychology’s unique adaptability across various illness trajectories while still maintaining a cohesive approach to addressing mental health in ophthalmology patients.

This EBHS model appears to strengthen multidisciplinary collaboration by promoting shared understanding of patient functioning beyond only the ophthalmic presentation. While outcome data remain an area for future investigation, existing evidence from embedded care models supports the feasibility of this service and opportunities for improved adherence, satisfaction, and functional outcomes in our patients. Notably, as the field of medicine continues to pivot towards patient centered, data-driven outcomes (such as Patient Reported Outcome Measures; PROMs), psychosocial variables such as QoL, emotional distress, and indeed satisfaction with overall care become more vital to the health of our own healthcare system.

Although our work currently reflects a clinical practice model rather than a controlled study, it provides a practical and useful framework for integrating psychosocial care into ophthalmology clinics broadly. Future research using embedded models of care may benefit from examining patient-reported outcomes and service utilization metrics. Nevertheless, EBHS demonstrates a practical, feasible, and scalable approach to whole-person vision care.

Summary

There is already a well-established link between ophthalmology and psychiatry. This connection is both biological and clinical in nature, as ophthalmic conditions are known to contribute to psychiatric dysfunction and psychological illness can lead to ophthalmic disease. The intersection between neuro-ophthalmology and psychiatry is similarly inherent, yet clinical management for psychiatric comorbidities to neuro-ophthalmic conditions remains relatively underexplored. Current practice demonstrates the need for psychiatric thinking and management to be implemented into neuro-ophthalmic practice. The EBHS model of care may provide a unique solution to this issue, given its present success in fields such as vision rehabilitation, ophthalmic trauma, and inherited retinal disease.

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  45. ↑ Congenital disorders of the optic nerve: excavations and hypoplasia | Eye [Internet]. [cited 2026 Feb 28]. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/6701545
  46. ↑ Donato UM, Nguyen OT, Alishahi Tabriz A, Hong YR, Turner K. Mental healthcare access among US adults with vision impairment and depression and/or anxiety symptoms. Disabil Health J. 2024 Jul;17(3):101619.
  47. ↑ Shah P, Schwartz SG, Gartner S, Scott IU, Flynn HW. Low vision services: a practical guide for the clinician. Ther Adv Ophthalmol. 2018 Jun 11;10:2515841418776264.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Demmin DL, Silverstein SM. Visual Impairment and Mental Health: Unmet Needs and Treatment Options. Clin Ophthalmol Auckl NZ. 2020 Dec 3;14:4229–51.
  49. ↑ Sabel BA, Wang J, Cárdenas-Morales L, Faiq M, Heim C. Mental stress as consequence and cause of vision loss: the dawn of psychosomatic ophthalmology for preventive and personalized medicine. EPMA J. 2018 May 9;9(2):133–60.
  50. ↑ Newman NJ. Neuro-ophthalmology and psychiatry. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 1993 Mar 1;15(2):102–14.
  51. ↑ Rajsekar K, Rajsekar YL, Chaturvedi SK. PSYCHO OPHTHALMOLOGY : THE INTERFACE BETWEEN PSYCHIATRY AND OPHTHALMOLOGY. Indian J Psychiatry. 1999;41(3):186–96.
  52. ↑ Fortini S, Costanzo E, Rellini E, Amore F, Mariotti SP, Varano M, et al. Use of the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) questionnaires for clinical decision-making and psychological referral in ophthalmic care: a multicentre observational study. BMJ Open. 2024 Jan 18;14(1):e075141.
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  54. ↑ Agarwal R, Tripathi A. Current Modalities for Low Vision Rehabilitation. Cureus. 2021 Jul;13(7):e16561.
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  56. ↑ Parravano M, Petri D, Maurutto E, Lucenteforte E, Menchini F, Lanzetta P, et al. Association Between Visual Impairment and Depression in Patients Attending Eye Clinics. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2021 Jul;139(7):1–10.
  57. ↑ Nollett C, Bartlett R, Man R, Pickles T, Ryan B, Acton JH. Barriers to integrating routine depression screening into community low vision rehabilitation services: a mixed methods study. BMC Psychiatry. 2020 Aug 26;20(1):419.
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